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Verzia z 16:33, 11. september 2014

Solvay-Konferenzen ist der Name von internationalen Fachkonferenzen auf dem Gebiet der Physik und der Chemie. Die 25. Solvay-Konferenz der Physik fand vom 19. bis 22. Oktober 2011 in Brüssel zu dem Thema Die Theorie der Quantenwelt statt. Die 22. Solvay-Konferenz der Chemie fand vom 13. bis 16. Oktober 2001 in Brüssel zu dem Thema „Quanteneffekte in der Chemie und Biologie“ statt.

História

mini|Ernest Solvay, der Namensgeber und Mäzen der Konferenzen Diese Konferenzen in Brüssel erhielten ihren Namen nach dem belgischen Großindustriellen Ernest Solvay. Walther Nernst war durch Vermittlung von Robert Goldschmidt 1910 mit Solvay in Kontakt gekommen und hatte ihn überzeugt, eine internationale Zusammenkunft der Physiker auf höchstem Niveau zu organisieren, um die fundamentalen Probleme der gegenwärtigen Physik zu diskutieren. Die erste Solvay-Konferenz (1911) vereinigte die Weltspitze der damaligen experimentierenden und theoretischen Physiker. Nernst hatte Solvay bei seinem persönlichen Treffen im Juli 1910 als Diskussionsthema die „Einführung der Quanten in die theoretische Physik“ vorgeschlagen und sich einen Monat zuvor mit Max Planck über das mögliche Thema der Konferenz besprochen. Max Planck war relativ skeptisch wegen des gewählten Themas, da er glaubte, dass die Bedeutung dieser Fragen noch zu ungenügend bekannt sei und dass sich außer ihm wohl nur Albert Einstein, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, Wilhelm Wien und Joseph Larmor ernsthaft für die vorgeschlagene Thematik interessierten. Der Nernst’sche Vorschlag wurde von Solvay akzeptiert und die erste von Solvay einberufene Einladung und Konferenz fand vom 30. Oktober bis zum 3. November 1911 im Hotel Metropol in Brüssel unter dem Thema „Die Theorie der Strahlung und der Quanten“ statt. Der neutrale Tagungsort Brüssel ebenso wie der hochintegre Lorentz als Tagungspräsident wurden auserkoren, um möglichen transnationalen Spannungen vorzubeugen. In einer kurzen Begrüßungsadresse sagte Walther Nernst: „...die fundamentalen und fruchtbaren Ideen von Planck und Einstein sollten uns als Grundlage unserer Diskussionen dienen, wir können sie modifizieren oder verbessern, aber wir können sie nicht ignorieren...“

Die Tagung wurde nicht zuletzt durch die ausführliche, weit verbreitete Publikation aller Vorträge und Ergebnisse (realisiert durch Maurice de Broglie und Paul Langevin) zu einem außerordentlichen Erfolg und historischen Ereignis. Der Erfolg der Konferenz veranlasste Goldschmidt unter Mithilfe von Lorentz, Solvay die Fortsetzung seines Mäzenatentums vorzuschlagen und ein auf 30 Jahre angelegtes „Internationales Institut für Physik und Chemie“ zu gründen und periodisch erneute Solvay-Konferenzen nach dem Muster von 1911 zu organisieren.

Auf den folgenden Solvay-Konferenzen sollten stets nur eine beschränkte Zahl – nämlich maximal 25 – eingeladener höchstrangiger Physiker und Chemiker zu einer Art „Gipfelkonferenz“ zusammenkommen, um wichtige Themen zu diskutieren. Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg wurden die Konferenzen in dreijährigen Abständen in den Jahren 1921 bis 1933, und nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg ab 1948 in Brüssel fortgesetzt.

Solvayové fyzikálne konferencie

Poradie	Rok	Originálny názov konferencie	Slovenský preklad	Predsedajúci
1	1911	La théorie du rayonnement et les quanta	Teória žiarenia a kvánt	H. A. Lorentz (Leiden)
2	1913	La structure de la matière	Štruktúra hmoty	H. A. Lorentz (Leiden)
3	1921	Atomes et électrons	Atómy a elektróny	H. A. Lorentz (Leiden)
4	1924	Conductibilité électrique des métaux et problèmes connexes	Elektrická vodivosť kovov a súvisiace problémy	H. A. Lorentz (Leiden)
5	1927	Electrons et photons	Elektróny a fotóny	H. A. Lorentz (Leiden)
6	1930	Le magnétisme	Magnetizmus	P. Langevin (Paríž)
7	1933	Structure et propriétés des noyaux atomiques	Štruktúra a vlastnosti atómových jadier	P. Langevin (Paríž)
8	1948	Les particules élémentaires	Elementárne častice	L. Bragg (Cambridge)
9	1951	L'état solide	Pevné látky	L. Bragg (Cambridge)
10	1954	Les électrons dans les métaux	Elektróny v kovoch	L. Bragg (Cambridge)
11	1958	La structure et l'évolution de l'univers	Štruktúra a vývoj vesmíru	L. Bragg (Cambridge)
12	1961	La théorie quantique des champs	Kvantová teória poľa	L. Bragg (Cambridge)
13	1964	The Structure and Evolution of Galaxies	Štruktúra a evolúcia vesmíru	R. Oppenheimer (Princeton)
14	1967	Fundamental Problems in Elementary Particle Physics	Fundamentálne problémy fyziky elementárnych častíc	Ch. Møller (Kodaň)
15	1970	Symmetry Properties of Nuclei	Symetrické vlastnosti jadier	E. Amaldi (Rím)
16	1973	Astrophysics and Gravitation	Astrofyzika a Gravitácia	E. Amaldi (Rím)
17	1978	Order and Fluctuations in Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics	Usporiadanie a fluktuácie in rovnovážnej a nerovnovážnej štatistickej fyzike	L. Van Hove (CERN)
18	1982	Higher Energy Physics	Fyzika vysokých energií	L. Van Hove (CERN)
19	1987	Surface Science	Fyzika povrchov	F. W. de Wette (Austin)
20	1991	Quantum Optics	Kvantová optika	P. Mandel (Brüssel)
21	1998	Dynamical Systems and Irreversibility	Dynamické systémy a ireverzibilita	I. Antoniou (Brüssel)
22	2001	The Physics of Communication	Fyzika komunikácie	I. Antoniou (Brüssel)
23	2005	The Quantum Structure of Space and Time	Kvantová štruktúra priestoru a času	D. Gross (Santa Barbara)
24	2008	Quantum Theory of Condensed Matter	Kvantová teória kondenzovaných látok	B. Halperin (Harvard)
25	2011	The theory of the quantum world	Teória kvantového sveta	D. Gross (Santa Barbara)
26	2014	Astrophysics and Cosmology	Astrofzyika a Kozmológia	R. Blandford (Stanford)

Zpracované podľa http://www.solvayinstitutes.be/html/solvayconf_physics.html.

Solvay Conferences on Chemistry

No	Year	Title	Translation	Chair
1	1922	Cinq Questions d'Actualité	Five topical questions	W. J. Pope (Cambridge)
2	1925	Structure et Activité Chimique	Structure and Chemical Activity	W. J. Pope (Cambridge)
3	1928	Questions d'Actualité	Topical Questions	W. J. Pope (Cambridge)
4	1931	Constitution et Configuration des Molécules Organiques	Constitution and Configuration of Organic Molecules	W. J. Pope (Cambridge)
5	1934	L'Oxygène, ses réactions chimiques et biologiques	Oxygen, and its chemical and biological reactions.	W. J. Pope (Cambridge)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
7	1947	Les Isotopes	Izotopy	P. Karrer (Zurich)
8	1950	Le Mécanisme de l'Oxydation	The mechanism of oxidation	P. Karrer (Zurich)
9	1953	Les Protéines		P. Karrer (Zurich)
10	1956	Quelques Problèmes de Chimie Minérale	Some Problems of Inorganic Chemistry	P. Karrer (Zurich)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent)
6	1937	Les vitamines et les Hormones	Vitamins and Hormones	Frédéric Swarts (Ghent
11	1959	Les Nucléoprotéines	Nucleoproteins	Alfred Rene Ubbelohde (London)
12	1962	Transfert d'Energie dans les Gaz	Energy transfer in gases
13	1965	Reactivity of the Photoexcited Organic Molecule
14	1969	Phase Transitions
15	1970	Electrostatic Interactions and Structure of Water
16	1976	Molecular Movements and Chemical Reactivity as conditioned by Membranes, Enzymes and other Molecules
17	1980	Aspects of Chemical Evolution
18	1983	Design and Synthesis of Organic Molecules Based on Molecular Recognition		Ephraim Katchalski (Rehovot) & Vladimir Prelog (Zurich)
19	1987	Surface Science		F. W. de Wette (Austin)
20	1995	Chemical Reactions and their Control on the Femtosecond Time Scale		Pierre Gaspard (Brussels)
21	2007	From Noncovalent Assemblies to Molecular Machines		Jean-Pierre Sauvage (Strasbourg)
22	2010	Quantum Effects in Chemistry and Biology		Graham Fleming (Berkeley)

Zpracované podľa http://www.solvayinstitutes.be/html/solvayconf_chemistry.html,

Conferences on Chemistry gallery

First Conference, 1922

Prvá Solvayová konferencia

Die erste Solvay-Konferenz mit dem Thema „Theorie der Strahlung und Quanten“ wurde von Hendrik Antoon Lorentz geleitet und befasste sich mit den unterschiedlichen Ansätzen der Klassischen Physik und der im Entstehen begriffenen Quantenphysik.

Das nebenstehende Foto zeigt die Teilnehmer der Konferenz (anklickbares Foto):

Druhá Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmer der Konferenz waren:

Stehend von links nach rechts: Friedrich Hasenöhrl, Jules-Émile Verschaffelt, James Jeans, William Henry Bragg, Max von Laue, Heinrich Rubens, Marie Curie, Robert Goldschmidt, Arnold Sommerfeld, Édouard Herzen, Albert Einstein, Frederick Lindemann, Maurice de Broglie, William Jackson Pope, Eduard Grüneisen, Martin Knudsen, Georges Hostelet, Paul Langevin

Sitzend von links nach rechts: Walther Nernst, Ernest Rutherford, Wilhelm Wien, Joseph John Thomson, Emil Warburg, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, Marcel Brillouin, William Barlow, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Robert Williams Wood, Louis Georges Gouy, Pierre-Ernest Weiss

Tretia Solvayová konferencia

Zu dieser Konferenz im Jahr 1921 waren keine deutschen Wissenschaftler eingeladen, da die Erinnerung an den Ersten Weltkrieg und die deutsche Besetzung Belgiens noch zu kurz zurücklag. Dadurch waren einerseits die deutschen Wissenschaftler benachteiligt, andererseits litt aber auch die Qualität der Konferenz erheblich, da gerade an deutschen Universitäten wichtige Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet der modernen Physik (Quantentheorie, Relativitätstheorie) gemacht wurden.

Stehend von links nach rechts: William Lawrence Bragg, Edmond van Aubel, Wander Johannes de Haas, Édouard Herzen, Charles Glover Barkla, Paul Ehrenfest, Manne Siegbahn, Jules-Émile Verschaffelt, Léon Brillouin

Sitzend von links nach rechts: Albert A. Michelson, Martin Knudsen, Pierre-Ernest Weiss, Jean-Baptiste Perrin, Marcel Brillouin, Paul Langevin, Ernest Solvay, Owen Willans Richardson, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, Joseph Larmor, Ernest Rutherford, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Robert Andrews Millikan, Pieter Zeeman, Marie Curie, Maurice de Broglie

Štvrtá Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmer der Konferenz von 1924 waren:

Erste Reihe von links nach rechts: Ernest Rutherford, Marie Curie, Edwin Hall, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, William Henry Bragg, Marcel Brillouin, Willem Hendrik Keesom, Edmond van Aubel;

zweite Reihe von links nach rechts: Peter Debye, Abram Fjodorowitsch Ioffe, Owen Willans Richardson, Witold Broniewski, Walter Rosenhain, Paul Langevin, George de Hevesy;

darüber von links nach rechts: Léon Brillouin, Émile Henriot, Théophile de Donder, Edmond Henri Georges Bauer, Édouard Herzen, Auguste Piccard, Erwin Schrödinger, Percy Williams Bridgman, Jules-Émile Verschaffelt

Piata Solvayová konferencia

Auf der wahrscheinlich berühmtesten, der fünften Solvay-Konferenz im Jahr 1927 über Elektronen und Photonen wurde die neu formulierte Quantentheorie diskutiert mit den dominierenden Persönlichkeiten Albert Einstein und Niels Bohr (Einstein-Bohr-Debatte). 17 der 29 Anwesenden besaßen oder bekamen in der Folgezeit den Nobelpreis.

Teilnehmer der Konferenz waren:

Šiesta Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmerfoto der Sechsten Solvay-Konferenz Brüssel 1930

Stehend von links nach rechts: Édouard Herzen, Émile Henriot, Jules-Émile Verschaffelt, Charles Manneback, Aimé Cotton, Jacques Errera, Otto Stern, Auguste Piccard, Walther Gerlach, Charles Galton Darwin, Paul Dirac, Edmond Henri Georges Bauer, Pjotr Leonidowitsch Kapiza, Léon Brillouin, Hendrik Anthony Kramers, Peter Debye, Wolfgang Pauli, Jakow Dorfman, John H. van Vleck, Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg

Sitzend von links nach rechts: Théophile de Donder, Pieter Zeeman, Pierre-Ernest Weiss, Arnold Sommerfeld, Marie Curie, Paul Langevin, Albert Einstein, Owen Willans Richardson, Blas Cabrera, Niels Bohr, Wander Johannes de Haas

Siedma Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmerfoto der Siebten Solvay-Konferenz Brüssel (Oktober 1933)

Sitzend von links nach rechts: Erwin Schrödinger, Irène Joliot-Curie, Niels Bohr, Abram Fjodorowitsch Ioffe, Marie Curie, Paul Langevin, Owen Willans Richardson, Ernest Rutherford, Théophile de Donder, Maurice de Broglie, Louis-Victor de Broglie, Lise Meitner, James Chadwick.

Stehend von links nach rechts: Émile Henriot, Francis Perrin, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Werner Heisenberg, Hendrik Anthony Kramers, Ernst Stahel, Enrico Fermi, Ernest Walton, Paul Dirac, Peter Debye, Nevill Francis Mott, Blas Cabrera, George Gamow, Walther Bothe, Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett, M. S. Rosenblum, Jacques Errera, Edmond Henri Georges Bauer, Wolfgang Pauli, Jules-Émile Verschaffelt, Max Cosyns, Édouard Herzen, John Cockcroft, Charles Drummond Ellis, Rudolf Peierls, Auguste Piccard, Ernest Lawrence, Léon Rosenfeld.

Abwesend Albert Einstein und Charles-Eugène Guye

Ôsma Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmer der Konferenz 1948 waren:^[1]^[2]

Sitzend von links nach rechts: John Cockcroft, Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat, Erwin Schrödinger, Owen Willans Richardson, Niels Bohr, Wolfgang Pauli, William Lawrence Bragg, Lise Meitner, Paul Dirac, Hendrik Anthony Kramers, Théophile de Donder, Walter Heitler, Jules-Émile Verschaffelt;

in zweiter Reihe: Paul Scherrer, Ernst Stahel, Oskar Klein, Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett, Philip Dee, Felix Bloch, Otto Robert Frisch, Rudolf Peierls, Homi Jehangir Bhabha, Robert Oppenheimer, Giuseppe Occhialini, Cecil Frank Powell, Hendrik Casimir, Marc de Hemptinne;

in dritter Reihe: Paul Kipfer, Pierre Auger, Francis Perrin, Robert Serber, Léon Rosenfeld, B. Ferretti, Christian Møller, Louis Leprince-Ringuet;

in vierter Reihe: G. Balasse, L. Flamache, L. Groven, O. Goche, M. Demeur, J. Errera, Van Isacker, Leon Van Hove, Edward Teller, Y. Goldschmidt, Ladislaus Laszlo Marton, C. C. Dilworth, Ilya Prigogine, Jules Géhéniau, E. Henriot, M. Van Styvendael.

Deviata Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmer der Konferenz 1951 waren;

Sitzend: Crussaro, Norman Percy Allen, Yvette Cauchois, Borelius, William Lawrence Bragg, Christian Møller, Sietz, Hollomon, Frank,

zweite Reihe: Gerhart Wolfgang Rathenau, Koster, Rudberg, L. Flamache, O. Goche, L. Groven, Egon Orowan, Wilhelm Gerard Burgers, William B. Shockley, André Guinier, C. S. Smith, Ulrich Dehlinger, Laval, E. Henriot,

dritte Reihe: Gaspart, Lomer, Alan Cottrell, Georges Homes, Hubert Curien.

Desiata Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmer der Konferenz 1954 waren:^[3]

Sitzend von links nach rechts: Kurt Mendelssohn, Herbert Fröhlich, David Pines, Christian Møller, Wolfgang Pauli, William Lawrence Bragg, Nevill Francis Mott, Louis Néel, Karl Wilhelm Meissner, MacDonald, Clifford Shull, Charles Friedel

Stehend von links nach rechts: Cor Gorter, Charles Kittel, Bernd Matthias, Ilya Prigogine, Lars Onsager, Brian Pippard, Smit, Fausto Gherardo Fumi, Jones, John Hasbrouck Van Vleck, Per-Olov Löwdin, Raymond John Seeger, Paul Kipfer, O. Goche, G. Balasse, Jules Géhéniau.

Jedenásta Solvayová konferencia

Teilnehmer der Konferenz 1958 waren:

Sitzend von links nach rechts: William McCrea, Jan Hendrik Oort, Georges Lemaître, Cor Gorter, Wolfgang Pauli, William Lawrence Bragg, Robert Oppenheimer, Moller, Harlow Shapley, Otto Heckmann;

Darüber von links nach rechts: Oskar Klein, William Wilson Morgan, Fred Hoyle, Kukaskin, Viktor Hambardsumjan, Hendrik Christoffel van de Hulst, Markus Fierz, Allan Rex Sandage, Walter Baade, Evry Schatzman, John Archibald Wheeler, Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, Herman Zanstra, Léon Rosenfeld, Ledoux, Bernard Lovell, Jules Géhéniau.

Šablóna:Lückenhaft

23. Solvay-Konferenz

Die Teilnehmer der Konferenz 2005 waren: Nima Arkani-Hamed, Abhay Vasant Ashtekar, Michael Francis Atiyah, Constantin Bachas, Tom Banks, Lars Brink, Robert Brout, Claudio Bunster, Curtis Callan, Thibault Damour, Jan de Boer, Bernard de Wit, Robbert Dijkgraaf, Michael R. Douglas, Georgi Dvali, François Englert, Ludwig Faddejew, Pierre Fayet, Willy Fischler, Peter Galison, Murray Gell-Mann, Gary Gibbons, Michael Green, Brian Greene, David Gross, Alan Guth, Jeffrey Harvey, Gary Horowitz, Bernard Julia, Shamit Kachru, Renata Kallosch, Elias Kiritsis, Igor Klebanov, Andrei Linde, Dieter Lüst, Juan Maldacena, Nikita Nekrasov, Hermann Nicolai, Hirosi Ooguri, Joseph Polchinski, Alexander Poljakow, Eliezer Rabinovici, Pierre Ramond, Lisa Randall, Waleri Rubakow, John Schwarz, Nathan Seiberg, Ashoke Sen, Stephen Shenker, Eva Silverstein, Paul Steinhardt, Andrew Strominger, Gerardus ’t Hooft, Neil Turok, Gabriele Veneziano, Steven Weinberg, Frank Wilczek, Paul Windey und Shing-Tung Yau.

24. Solvay-Konferenz

Die Teilnehmer der Konferenz 2008 waren: Ian Affleck, Igor Aleiner, Boris Altshuler, Philip W. Anderson, Natan Andrei, Tito Arecchi, Assa Auerbach, Leon Balents, Carlo Beenakker, Immanuel Bloch, John Chalker, Juan Ignacio Cirac Sasturain, Marvin Cohen, Leticia F. Cugliandolo, Sankar Das Sarma, J. C. Davis, Eugene Demler, James Eisenstein, M. P. A. Fisher, Michael Freedman, Antoine Georges, Steven M. Girvin, Leonid Glazman, David Gross, F. Duncan M. Haldane, Bertrand Halperin, Cathy Kallin, Bernhard Keimer, Wolfgang Ketterle, Alexei Kitaev, Steven A. Kivelson, Klaus von Klitzing, Leo Kouwenhoven, Robert B. Laughlin, Patrick A. Lee, Daniel Loss, Allan H. MacDonald, Alexander Mirlin, Naoto Nagaosa, N. P. Ong, Giorgio Parisi, Pierre Ramond, Nicholas Read, T. M. Rice, Subir Sachdev, T. Senthil, Zhi-Xun Shen, Efrat Shimshoni, Ady Stern, Matthias Troyer, Chandra Varma, Xiao-Gong Wen, Steven R. White, Frank Wilczek und Peter Zoller.

Literatur

P. Marage, G. Wallenborn: Les conseils Solvay et la physique moderne. In: Robert Halleux, Jan Vanndermissen, A. Despy-Mayer, G. Vanpaemel (Hrsg.): Histoire des Sciences en Belgique, 1815–2000. Band 2, 2001, S. 109–121. (online; PDF; 219 kB)
Pierre Marage, Grégoire Wallenborn (Hrsg.): The Solvay Councils and the Birth of Modern Physics (= Science Networks. Historical Studies, Book 22). 1. Auflage. Birkhäuser, Basel 1999, ISBN 3-7643-5705-3.
Walther Nernst: Anwendung der Quantentheorie auf eine Reihe physikalisch-chemischer Probleme. Solvay Kongress. Band 3, 1911, S. 208–244. Abhandlung der Deutschen Bunsen-Gesellschaft fur angewandte physikalische Chemie.
Die Theorie der Strahlung und der Quanten. Verhandlungen auf einer von E. Solvay einberufenen Zusammenkunft (30. Oktober bis 3. November 1911). Verlag von Wilhelm Knapp, Halle a. S. 1914.

Weblinks

Wikimedia Commons ponúka multimediálny obsah k téme
Peterzet/pieskovisko

Einzelnachweise

Kategorie:Veranstaltung in Brüssel Kategorie:Veranstaltung (Physik) Kategorie:Wissenschaftliche Tagung

Fyzika kondenzovaných látok sa zaoberá rôznymi kondenzovanými fázami.^[1] Medzi najbežnejšie kondenzované fázy pri tom patria pevné látky a kvapaliny. Menej bežné fázy zahŕňajú napríklad ferromagnetické a antiferromagnetické fázy spinov v atomárnych mriežkach, supravodivé fázy vyskytujúce sa väčšinou pri nízkych teplotách, či napríklad aj Boseho–Einsteinove kondenzáty vyskytujúce sa v ultrachladných bozonických systémoch.

Pri teoretickom štúdiu kondenzovaných látok sa v súčasnosti využívajú hlavne zákony kvantovej a štatistickej fyziky, pričom mnohé teoretické koncepty a techniky sú úzko späté s fyzikou elementárnych častíc ako aj nukleárnou fyzikou.^[2] V minulosti bolo mnoho výsledkov dosiahnutých aj v rámci klasickej mechaniky (napríklad Drudeho model), tieto ale majú obmedzenú aproximatívnu platnosť. Experimentálne štúdium v rámci fyziky kondenzovaných látok sa zameriava na meranie rôznych makroskopických veličín. Fyzika kondenzovaných látok má mnohé presahy do chémie, materialového inžinierstva, či do nanotechnológii. Veľmi úzky vzťah existuje aj smerom k atómovej fyzike a biofyzike.

Život (joliot currie)

Frédéric Joliot vyštudoval vyššiu odbornú školu chémie a fyziky v Paríži. Školu ukončil v roku 1923 a nastúpil do železiarní v Luxenburgu. Po necelých dvoch rokoch bol prepustený. S pomocou profesora Langevina získal v roku 1925 miesto v laboratóriu Marie Curie. Necelý rok po nástupe do laboratória sa oženil s Irène Curie, dcérou Marie Curie. V roku 1930 získal doktorát prírodných vied za prácu o elektrochémie polónia. Od roku 1932 publikoval množstvo prác spoločne so svojou ženou.

A variety of topics in physics such as crystallography, metallurgy, elasticity, magnetism, etc., were treated as distinct areas, until the 1940s when they were grouped together as Solid state physics. Around the 1960s, the study of physical properties of liquids was added to this list, and it came to be known as condensed matter physics.^[3] According to physicist Phil Anderson, the term was coined by him and Volker Heine when they changed the name of their group at the Cavendish Laboratories, Cambridge from "Solid state theory" to "Theory of Condensed Matter",^[4] as they felt it did not exclude their interests in the study of liquids, nuclear matter and so on.^[5] The Bell Labs (then known as the Bell Telephone Laboratories) was one of the first institutes to conduct a research program in condensed matter physics.^[3]

References to "condensed" state can be traced to earlier sources. For example, in the introduction to his 1947 "Kinetic theory of liquids" book,^[6] Yakov Frenkel proposed that "The kinetic theory of liquids must accordingly be developed as a generalization and extension of the kinetic theory of solid bodies. As a matter of fact, it would be more correct to unify them under the title of "condensed bodies".

Historický vývoj

Obdobie	Objav
3 miliony rokov p.n.l. až 4. tisícročie p.n.l.	Doba kamenná
300 až 1200 p.n.l.	Doba bronzová
1200 až 700 p.n.l.	Doba železná
500 až 370. p.n.l.	Leukippos z Miléta, Démokritos z Abdér rozvíjajú atomistickú teóriu
500 až 300 p.n.l.	Empedokles považuje hmotu za zloženú zo štyroch elementov (oheň, voda, vzduch, zem). Platón a Aristoteles rozvíjajú teóriu elementov, Aristoteles pridáva piaty element éter a odmieta atomistickú povahu elementov, zastáva ich kontinuálny charakter.
stredovek	Prevládajú Aristotelové predstavy.
1700	Atomistická myšlienka, Newton
19. storočie	Physics is considered to be “solved” by Classical Mechanics, Electromagnetism, and Thermodynamics. Metallurgy becomes important and is described by empirical laws.
okolo 1800	Humphry Davy pozoroval, že zo 40 vtedy známych prvkov má 26 kovové vlastnosti (lesk, rozťažnosť, vysoká elektrická a tepelná vodivosť).^[7] This indicated that the atoms in Dalton's atomic theory were not indivisible as Dalton claimed, but had inner structure. Davy further claimed that elements that were then believed to be gases, such as nitrogen and hydrogen could be liquefied under the right conditions and would then behave as metals.^[8]^{[notes 1]}
1820	Klasifikácia kryštálových symetrii (Brilliouin) ???????
1823	Michael Faraday, then an assistant in Davy's lab, successfully liquefied chlorine and went on to liquefy all known gaseous elements, with the exception of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen.^[7]
a	Magnetism as a property of matter has been known since pre-historic times.^[10] However, the first modern studies of magnetism only started with the development of electrodynamics by Faraday, Maxwell and others in the nineteenth century, which included the classification of materials as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic based on their response to magnetization.^[11]
1853	Wiedemannov Franzov zákon (tepelná a elektrická vodivosť)
1869	1869, Irish chemist Thomas Andrews studied the phase transition from a liquid to a gas and coined the s phases,^[12] and Dutch physicist Johannes van der Waals supplied the theoretical framework which allowed the prediction of critical behavior based on measurements at much higher temperatures.^[13]
1879	Edwin Herbert Hall pozoroval vznik tranzverzného elektrického napätia pri pôsobení magnetického poľa na prúd, efekt nazývaný dnes Hallov jav.^[14] Správne teoretické vysvetlenie javu bolo podané až po objave elektrónu.
1897	Thomson objavuje elektrón.
1900	1900 Drude (a Lorentz) teória kovov na báze voľného plynu elektrónov. Paul Drude proposed the first theoretical model for a classical electron moving through a metallic solid.^[2] Drude's model described properties of metals in terms of a gas of free electrons, and was the first microscopic model to explain empirical observations such as the Wiedemannov–Franzov zákon.^[15]^[16] However, despite the success of Drude's free electron model, it had one notable problem, in that it was unable to correctly explain the electronic contribution to the specific heat of metals, as well as the temperature dependence of resistivity at low temperatures.^[17]
1906	1906, Pierre Weiss introduced the concept of magnetic domains to explain the main properties of ferromagnets.^[18]
1908	1908, James Dewar and H. Kamerlingh Onnes were successfully able to liquefy hydrogen and then newly discovered helium, respectively.^[7]
1911	Onnes (a Holst) objav supravodivovosti v medi NB: Onnes 1913 when he observed the electrical resistivity of mercury to vanish at temperatures below a certain value.^[19] The phenomenon completely surprised the best theoretical physicists of the time, and it remained unexplained for several decades.^[20] Albert Einstein, in 1922, said regarding contemporary theories of superconductivity that “with our far-reaching ignorance of the quantum mechanics of composite systems we are very far from being able to compose a theory out of these vague ideas”.^[21]
1912	1912 Max von Laue objavuje kryštálovú difrakciu röntgenového žiarenia The structure of crystalline solids was studied by Max von Laue and Paul Knipping, when they observed the X-ray diffraction pattern of crystals, and concluded that crystals get their structure from periodic lattices of atoms.^[22]
1913	W.H. & W.L. Bragg analyzujú kryštály pomocou röntgenového žiarenia,
1905	Teória fotoemisie Einstein
1907-1913	1907-1913 Teória špecifického tepla pevných látok (Einstein, Debye, Born)
1920	1920’s Ramanov rozptyl
a	19020-te difrakcia elektrónov na kryštáloch (Davisson, Thomson)
1925-1928	1925-1928 kvantová mechanika (Schrödinger, Heisenberg, Pauli, Dirac)
1926-1928	1926-1928 Sommerfeld, Pauli: The electron gas with Dirac statistics. Felix Bloch, Arnold Sommerfeld, and independently by Wolfgang Pauli, who used quantum mechanics to describe the motion of a quantum electron in a periodic lattice. In particular, Sommerfeld's theory accounted for the Fermi–Dirac statistics satisfied by electrons and was better able to explain the heat capacity and resistivity.^[17]
1928-1933	The Quantum Theory of an electron in a solid: Band Structure (Bloch, Peierls, Brillouin, Van Vleck) Band structure calculations was first used in 1930 to predict the properties of new materials, Magnetism (Pauli, Landau, Heisenberg, Bethe) Alvén, Néel 1970 1947 S., B., B. 1956
1935	The mathematics of crystal structures developed by Auguste Bravais, Yevgraf Fyodorov and others was used to classify crystals by their symmetry group, and tables of crystal structures were the basis for the series International Tables of Crystallography, first published in 1935.^[23]
1947	John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley developed the first semiconductor-based transistor, heralding a revolution in electronics.^[2]
1950	1950’s Kvantová teória poľa (Feynman, Dyson, Schwinger, Tomanaga...)
1950	1950 Ginzburg-Landau: fenomenologická teória supravodivosti Ginzburg, Leggett, Abrikosov, 2003
1950	Late 1950’s Teória interagujúcich elektrónov v pevných látkach (Landau, Migdal)
1950	Late 1950’s Rozptyl a difrakcia neutrónov (Brockhouse, Shull)
1957	1957 John Bardeen, Cooper, Schriefer: teória konvenčnej supravodivosti
1958	1958 Josephsonov efekt tunelujúcich elektrónov v supravodičoch
1960	1960’s Pochopenia minima vodivosti: Kondov efekt (Kondo, Anderson 1969)
	The study of phase transition and the critical behavior of observables, known as critical phenomena, was a major field of interest in the 1960s.^[24] Leo Kadanoff, Benjamin Widom and Michael Fisher developed the ideas of critical exponents and scaling.
1960	1960-te Density Functional Theory (Kohn, Pople)
1960	1960-te teória tekutých kryštálov NB: de Gennes 1991
1972	1970’s Renormalizačná grupa NB: Wilson 1982 Renormalizačná grupa Leo Kadanoff, Benjamin Widom and Michael Fisher developed the ideas of critical exponents and scaling. These ideas were unified by Kenneth Wilson in 1972, under the formalism of the renormalization group in the context of quantum field theory.^[24]
1972	1972 Superfluid He3 (Lee, Osheroff, Richardson) NB: L.,O.,R. 1996
1980	The Integer Quantum Hall Effect von Klitzing 1985 The quantum Hall effect was discovered by Klaus von Klitzing in 1980 when he observed the Hall conductivity to be integer multiples of a fundamental constant.^[25] (see figure) The effect was observed to be independent of parameters such as the system size and impurities, and in 1981, theorist Robert Laughlin proposed a theory describing the integer states in terms of a topological invariant called the Chern number.^[26]
1982	Shortly after, in 1982, Horst Störmer and Daniel Tsui observed the fraktálny kvantový Hallov efekt where the conductivity was now a rational multiple of a constant. Laughlin, in 1983, realized that this was a consequence of quasiparticle interaction in the Hall states and formulated a variational solution, known as the Laughlin wavefunction.^[27] The study of topological properties of the fractional Hall effect remains an active field of research.
1985	1985 Fulerény C60 (Curl, Kroto, Smalley)
1986	1987 objav vysokoteplotnej supravodivosti Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz discovered the first high temperature superconductor, a material which was superconducting at temperatures as high as 50 Kelvin. It was realized that the high temperature superconductors are examples of strongly correlated materials where the electron–electron interactions play an important role.^[28] A satisfactory theoretical description of high-temperature superconductors is still not known and the field of strongly correlated materials continues to be an active research topic.
1988	1988 obrovská magnetorezistencia
1991	1991 uhlíkové nanotrubky (Iijima)
1995	1995 realizácia Boseho-Einsteinovho kondenzátu NB: (Ketterle, Cornell, Wieman) K., C., .W. 2001
2003	2003 realizácia monoatomárnych grafénových vrstiev

Review article on the history of Cond. Mat. Physics: L.Hoddeson, G.Baym, M.Eckert, Rev. Mod. Phys. 59, p.287 (1987).

Nobelové ceny

NB: Max von Laue 1914

NB: H&L. Bragg 1915

NB:Einstein 1921

NB: Raman 1930

(Davisson, Thomson) NB: D., T. 1937

NB: Landau 1962

Bardeen, Cooper, Schriefer: teória konvenčnej supravodivosti NB: B.,C.,S. 1972

NB: Esaki, Giaever, Josephson 1973

NB: Anderson, Mott, Van Vleck 1977

NB: Wilson 1982

NB: Müller, Bednorz 1987

NB: de Gennes 1991

(Brockhouse, Shull) NB: B.,S., 1994

NB: 1996 (Chémia)

(Lee, Osheroff, Richardson) NB: L.,O.,R. 1996

NB: (Tsui, Störmer, Laughlin) NB: T, S., L. 1998

(Kohn, Pople) NB: 1998 (Chemistry)

NB: Fert, Grünberg 2007

NB: Geim,Novoselov 2010

A replica of the first point-contact transistor in Bell labs

After the advent of quantum mechanics, Lev Landau in 1930 predicted the quantization of the Hall conductance for electrons confined to two dimensions.^[29]

Pierre Curie studied the dependence of magnetization on temperature and discovered the Curie point phase transition in ferromagnetic materials.^[10]

The first attempt at a microscopic description of magnetism was by Wilhelm Lenz and Ernst Ising through the Ising model that described magnetic materials as consisting of a periodic lattice of spins that collectively acquired magnetization.^[10] The Ising model was solved exactly to show that spontaneous magnetization cannot occur in one dimension but is possible in higher-dimensional lattices. Further research such as by Bloch on spin waves and Néel on antiferromagnetism led to the development of new magnetic materials with applications to magnetic storage devices.^[10]

Moderná mnohočasticová fyzika

The Sommerfeld model and spin models for ferromagnetism illustrated the successful application of quantum mechanics to condensed matter problems in the 1930s. However, there still were several unsolved problems, most notably the description of superconductivity and the Kondo effect.^[30] After World War II, several ideas from quantum field theory were applied to condensed matter problems. These included recognition of collective modes of excitation of solids and the important notion of a quasiparticle. Russian physicist Lev Landau used the idea for the Fermi liquid theory wherein low energy properties of interacting fermion systems were given in terms of what are now known as Landau-quasiparticles.^[30] Landau also developed a mean field theory for continuous phase transitions, which described ordered phases as spontaneous breakdown of symmetry. The theory also introduced the notion of an order parameter to distinguish between ordered phases.^[31] Eventually in 1965, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schrieffer developed the so-called BCS theory of superconductivity, based on the discovery that arbitrarily small attraction between two electrons can give rise to a bound state called a Cooper pair.^[32]

In 2009, David Field and researchers at Aarhus University discovered spontaneous electric fields when creating prosaic films of various gases. This has more recently expanded to form the research area of spontelectrics.^[33]

Theoretical

Theoretical condensed matter physics involves the use of theoretical models to understand properties of states of matter. These include models to study the electronic properties of solids, such as the Drude model, the Band structure and the density functional theory. Theoretical models have also been developed to study the physics of phase transitions, such as the Ginzburg–Landau theory, critical exponents and the use of mathematical techniques of quantum field theory and the renormalization group. Modern theoretical studies involve the use of numerical computation of electronic structure and mathematical tools to understand phenomena such as high-temperature superconductivity, topological phases and gauge symmetries.

Emergence

Bližšie informácie v hlavnom článku: Emergence

Theoretical understanding of condensed matter physics is closely related to the notion of emergence, wherein complex assemblies of particles behave in ways dramatically different from their individual constituents.^[32] For example, a range of phenomena related to high temperature superconductivity are not well understood, although the microscopic physics of individual electrons and lattices is well known.^[34] Similarly, models of condensed matter systems have been studied where collective excitations behave like photons and electrons, thereby describing electromagnetism as an emergent phenomenon.^[35] Emergent properties can also occur at the interface between materials: one example is the lanthanum-aluminate-strontium-titanate interface, where two non-magnetic insulators are joined to create conductivity, superconductivity, and ferromagnetism.

Electronic theory of solids

Bližšie informácie v hlavnom článku: Electronic band structure

The metallic state has historically been an important building block for studying properties of solids.^[36] The first theoretical description of metals was given by Paul Drude in 1900 with the Drude model, which explained electrical and thermal properties by describing a metal as an ideal gas of then-newly discovered electrons. This classical model was then improved by Arnold Sommerfeld who incorporated the Fermi–Dirac statistics of electrons and was able to explain the anomalous behavior of the specific heat of metals in the Wiedemann–Franz law.^[36] In 1913, X-ray diffraction experiments revealed that metals possess periodic lattice structure. Swiss physicist Felix Bloch provided a wave function solution to the Schrödinger equation with a periodic potential, called the Bloch wave.^[37]

Calculating electronic properties of metals by solving the many-body wavefunction is often computationally hard, and hence, approximation techniques are necessary to obtain meaningful predictions.^[38] The Thomas–Fermi theory, developed in the 1920s, was used to estimate electronic energy levels by treating the local electron density as a variational parameter. Later in the 1930s, Douglas Hartree, Vladimir Fock and John Slater developed the so-called Hartree–Fock wavefunction as an improvement over the Thomas–Fermi model. The Hartree–Fock method accounted for exchange statistics of single particle electron wavefunctions, but not for their Coulomb interaction. Finally in 1964–65, Walter Kohn, Pierre Hohenberg and Lu Jeu Sham proposed the density functional theory which gave realistic descriptions for bulk and surface properties of metals. The density functional theory (DFT) has been widely used since the 1970s for band structure calculations of variety of solids.^[38]

Symmetry breaking

Bližšie informácie v hlavnom článku: Symmetry breaking

Certain states of matter exhibit symmetry breaking, where the relevant laws of physics possess some symmetry that is broken. A common example is crystalline solids, which break continuous translational symmetry. Other examples include magnetized ferromagnets, which break rotational symmetry, and more exotic states such as the ground state of a BCS superconductor, that breaks U(1) rotational symmetry.^[39]

Goldstone's theorem in quantum field theory states that in a system with broken continuous symmetry, there may exist excitations with arbitrarily low energy, called the Goldstone bosons. For example, in crystalline solids, these correspond to phonons, which are quantized versions of lattice vibrations.^[40]

Phase transition

Bližšie informácie v hlavnom článku: Phase transition

The study of critical phenomena and phase transitions is an important part of modern condensed matter physics.^[41] Phase transition refers to the change of phase of a system, which is brought about by change in an external parameter such as temperature. In particular, quantum phase transitions refer to transitions where the temperature is set to zero, and the phases of the system refer to distinct ground states of the Hamiltonian. Systems undergoing phase transition display critical behavior, wherein several of their properties such as correlation length, specific heat and susceptibility diverge. Continuous phase transitions are described by the Ginzburg–Landau theory, which works in the so-called mean field approximation. However, several important phase transitions, such as the Mott insulator–superfluid transition, are known that do not follow the Ginzburg–Landau paradigm.^[42] The study of phase transitions in strongly correlated systems is an active area of research.^[43]

Experimental

Experimental condensed matter physics involves the use of experimental probes to try to discover new properties of materials. Experimental probes include effects of electric and magnetic fields, measurement of response functions, transport properties and thermometry.^[6] Commonly used experimental techniques include spectroscopy, with probes such as X-rays, infrared light and inelastic neutron scattering; study of thermal response, such as specific heat and measurement of transport via thermal and heat conduction.

Scattering

Bližšie informácie v hlavnom článku: Scattering

Several condensed matter experiments involve scattering of an experimental probe, such as X-ray, optical photons, neutrons, etc., on constituents of a material. The choice of scattering probe depends on the observation energy scale of interest.^[44] Visible light has energy on the scale of 1 eV and is used as a scattering probe to measure variations in material properties such as dielectric constant and refractive index. X-rays have energies of the order of 10 keV and hence are able to probe atomic length scales, and are used to measure variations in electron charge density. Neutrons can also probe atomic length scales and are used to study scattering off nuclei and electron spins and magnetization (as neutrons themselves have spin but no charge).^[44] Coulomb and Mott scattering measurements can be made by using electron beams as scattering probes,^[45] and similarly, positron annihilation can be used as an indirect measurement of local electron density.^[46] Laser spectroscopy is used as a tool for studying phenomena with energy in the range of visible light, for example, to study non-linear optics and forbidden transitions in media.^[47]

External magnetic fields

In experimental condensed matter physics, external magnetic fields act as thermodynamic variables that control the state, phase transitions and properties of material systems.^[48] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a technique by which external magnetic fields can be used to find resonance modes of individual electrons, thus giving information about the atomic, molecular and bond structure of their neighborhood. NMR experiments can be made in magnetic fields with strengths up to 65 Tesla.^[49] Quantum oscillations is another experimental technique where high magnetic fields are used to study material properties such as the geometry of the Fermi surface.^[50] The quantum hall effect is another example of measurements with high magnetic fields where topological properties such as Chern–Simons angle can be measured experimentally.^[47]

Cold atomic gases

Bližšie informácie v hlavnom článku: Optical lattice

Cold atom trapping in optical lattices is an experimental tool commonly used in condensed matter as well as atomic, molecular, and optical physics.^[51] The technique involves using optical lasers to create an interference pattern, which acts as a "lattice", in which ions or atoms can be placed at very low temperatures.^[52] Cold atoms in optical lattices are used as "quantum simulators", that is, they act as controllable systems that can model behavior of more complicated systems, such as frustrated magnets.^[53] In particular, they are used to engineer one-, two- and three-dimensional lattices for a Hubbard model with pre-specified parameters.^[54] and to study phase transitions for Néel and spin liquid ordering.^[51]

In 1995, a gas of rubidium atoms cooled down to a temperature of 170 nK was used to experimentally realize the Bose–Einstein condensate, a novel state of matter originally predicted by S. N. Bose and Albert Einstein, wherein a large number of atoms occupy a single quantum state.^[55]

Aplikácie

Research in condensed matter physics has given rise to several device applications, such as the development of the polovodičový tranzistor,^[2] and laser technology.^[47] Several phenomena studied in the context of nanotechnológia come under the purview of condensed matter physics.^[56] Techniques such as skenovací tunelový mikroskop can be used to control processes at the nanometer scale, and have given rise to the study of nanofabrication.^[57] Several condensed matter systems are being studied with potential applications to quantum computation,^[58] including experimental systems like kvantové bodky, SQUIDs, and theoretical models like the toric code and the quantum dimer model.^[59] Condensed matter systems can be tuned to provide the conditions of coherence and phase-sensitivity that are essential ingredients for quantum information storage.^[57] Spintronika is a new area of technology that can be used for information processing and transmission, and is based on spin, rather than electron transport.^[57] Condensed matter physics also has important applications to biophysics, for example, the experimental technique of magnetic resonance imaging, which is widely used in medical diagnosis.^[57]

Notes

↑ TAYLOR, Philip L.. A Quantum Approach to Condensed Matter Physics. [s.l.] : Cambridge University Press, 2002. Dostupné online. ISBN 0-521-77103-X.
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d COHEN, Marvin L.. Essay: Fifty Years of Condensed Matter Physics. Physical Review Letters, 2008. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-03-31]. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.250001.
↑ ^a ^b KOHN, W.. An essay on condensed matter physics in the twentieth century. Reviews of Modern Physics, 1999, s. S59. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-03-27]. DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S59.
↑ Philip Anderson [online]. Princeton University, [cit. 2012-03-27]. Dostupné online.
↑ More and Different. World Scientific Newsletter, November 2011, s. 2. Dostupné online.
↑ ^a ^b FRENKEL, J.. Kinetic Theory of Liquids. [s.l.] : Oxford University Press, 1947. Chyba citácie Neplatná značka <ref>; názov „exptcm“ je použitý viackrát s rôznym obsahom
↑ ^a ^b ^c GOODSTEIN, David; Goodstein, Judith. Richard Feynman and the History of Superconductivity. Physics in Perspective, 2000, s. 30. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-04-07]. DOI: 10.1007/s000160050035.
↑ DAVY, John (ed.). The collected works of Sir Humphry Davy: Vol. II. [s.l.] : Smith Elder & Co., Cornhill, 1839. Dostupné online.
↑ SILVERA, Isaac F.; Cole, John W.. Metallic Hydrogen: The Most Powerful Rocket Fuel Yet to Exist. Journal of Physics, 2010, s. 012194. DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/215/1/012194.
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d MATTIS, Daniel. The Theory of Magnetism Made Simple. [s.l.] : World Scientific, 2006. ISBN 9812386718.
↑ CHATTERJEE, Sabyasachi. Heisenberg and Ferromagnetism. Resonance, August 2004, s. 57. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-06-13]. DOI: 10.1007/BF02837578.
↑ ROWLINSON, J. S.. Thomas Andrews and the Critical Point. Nature, 1969, s. 541. DOI: 10.1038/224541a0.
↑ ATKINS, Peter; DE PAULA, Julio. Elements of Physical Chemistry. [s.l.] : Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-1-4292-1813-9.
↑ Hall, Edwin. On a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents. American Journal of Mathematics, 1879, s. 287–92. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-02-28]. DOI: 10.2307/2369245.
↑ KITTEL, Charles. Introduction to Solid State Physics. [s.l.] : John Wiley & Sons, 1996. ISBN 0-471-11181-3.
↑ HODDESON, Lillian. Out of the Crystal Maze: Chapters from The History of Solid State Physics. [s.l.] : Oxford University Press, 1992. Dostupné online. ISBN 9780195053296.
↑ ^a ^b CSURGAY, A.. The free electron model of metals. [s.l.] : Pázmány Péter Catholic University. Dostupné online.
↑ VISINTIN, Augusto. Differential Models of Hysteresis. [s.l.] : Springer, 1994. Dostupné online. ISBN 3540547932.
↑ VAN DELFT, Dirk; Kes, Peter. The discovery of superconductivity. Physics Today, September 2010, s. 38. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-04-07]. DOI: 10.1063/1.3490499.
↑ SLICHTER, Charles. Introduction to the History of Superconductivity [online]. American Institute of Physics, [cit. 2012-06-13]. Dostupné online.
↑ SCHMALIAN, Joerg. Failed theories of superconductivity. Modern Physics Letters B, 2010, s. 2679. DOI: 10.1142/S0217984910025280.
↑ ECKERT, Michael. Disputed discovery: the beginnings of X-ray diffraction in crystals in 1912 and its repercussions. Acta Crystallographica A, 2011, s. 30. Dostupné online. DOI: 10.1107/S0108767311039985.
↑ AROYO, Mois, I., Müller, Ulrich and Wondratschek, Hans Historical introduction. International Tables for Crystallography, 2006, s. 2–5. DOI: 10.1107/97809553602060000537.
↑ ^a ^b FISHER, Michael E.. Renormalization group theory: Its basis and formulation in statistical physics. Reviews of Modern Physics, 1998, s. 653. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-06-14]. DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.70.653.
↑ PANATI, Gianluca. The Poetry of Butterflies. Irish Times, April 15, 2012. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-06-14]. ^{[nefunkčný odkaz]}
↑ AVRON, Joseph E., Osadchy, Daniel and Seiler, Ruedi A Topological Look at the Quantum Hall Effect. Physics Today, 2003, s. 38. DOI: 10.1063/1.1611351.
↑ WEN, Xiao-Gang. Theory of the edge states in fractional quantum Hall eﬀects. International Journal of Modern Physics C, 1992, s. 1711. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-06-14]. DOI: 10.1142/S0217979292000840.
↑ QUINTANILLA, Jorge; Hooley, Chris. The strong-correlations puzzle. Physics World, June 2009. Dostupné online [cit. 2012-06-14].
↑ LANDAU, L. D.; LIFSHITZ, E. M.. Quantum Mechanics: Nonrelativistic Theory. [s.l.] : Pergamon Press, 1977. ISBN 0750635398.
↑ ^a ^b COLEMAN, Piers. Many-Body Physics: Unﬁnished Revolution. Annales Henri Poincaré, 2003, s. 559. DOI: 10.1007/s00023-003-0943-9.
↑ KADANOFF, Leo, P.. Phases of Matter and Phase Transitions; From Mean Field Theory to Critical Phenomena. [s.l.] : The University of Chicago, 2009. Dostupné online.
↑ ^a ^b COLEMAN, Piers. Introduction to Many Body Physics. [s.l.] : Rutgers University, 2011. Dostupné online.
↑ FIELD, David; Plekan, O.; Cassidy, A.. Spontaneous electric fields in solid films: spontelectrics. Int.Rev.Phys.Chem., 12 Mar 2013, s. 345. DOI: 10.1080/0144235X.2013.767109.
↑ Understanding Emergence [online]. National Science Foundation, [cit. 2012-03-30]. Dostupné online.
↑ LEVIN, Michael; Wen, Xiao-Gang. Colloquium: Photons and electrons as emergent phenomena. Reviews of Modern Physics, 2005, s. 871. DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.77.871.
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↑ HAN, Jung Hoon. Solid State Physics. [s.l.] : Sung Kyun Kwan University, 2010. Dostupné online.
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↑ Physics Through the 1990s. [s.l.] : National Research Council, 1986. Dostupné online. ISBN 0-309-03577-5. Chapter 3: Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena.
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↑ SACHDEV, Subir; Yin, Xi. Quantum phase transitions beyond the Landau–Ginzburg paradigm and supersymmetry. Annals of Physics, 2010, s. 2. DOI: 10.1016/j.aop.2009.08.003.
↑ ^a ^b CHAIKIN, P. M.; LUBENSKY, T. C.. Principles of condensed matter physics. [s.l.] : Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-43224-3.
↑ RISEBOROUGH, Peter S.. Condensed Matter Physics I. [s.l.] : [s.n.], 2002. Dostupné online.
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↑ ^a ^b ^c COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS. Condensed Matter Physics. [s.l.] : National Academies Press, 1986. Dostupné online. ISBN 978-0-309-03577-4.
↑ COMMITTEE ON FACILITIES FOR CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS. Report of the IUPAP working group on Facilities for Condensed Matter Physics : High Magnetic Fields [online]. International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, 2004. Dostupné online.
↑ Moulton, W. G. and Reyes, A. P.. High Magnetic Fields. Ed. Herlach, Fritz. [s.l.] : World Scientific, 2006. Dostupné online. ISBN 9789812774880. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Solids at very high magnetic fields.
↑ DOIRON-LEYRAUD, Nicolas; et al.. Quantum oscillations and the Fermi surface in an underdoped high-Tc superconductor. Nature, 2007, s. 565–568. DOI: 10.1038/nature05872. PMID 17538614.
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@@ Riadok 183: / Riadok 183: @@
 | align="center" |[[Roger Blandford|R. Blandford]] (Stanford)
 |}
+Zpracované podľa http://www.solvayinstitutes.be/html/solvayconf_physics.html.
 == Solvay Conferences on Chemistry ==
@@ Riadok 371: / Riadok 373: @@
 |}
+Zpracované podľa http://www.solvayinstitutes.be/html/solvayconf_chemistry.html,
 ===Conferences on Chemistry gallery===